Treatment of Adductor-Related Longstanding Groin Pain:    

Longstanding adductor-related groin pain is localized medially in the groin and may radiate down along the adductor muscles. The key examination features that distinguish this clinical entity from others are maximal tenderness at the adductor tendon insertion and pain with resisted adduction. Weakness of the adductor muscles is common and palpation of the adductors reveals generally increased muscle tone with trigger points along the adductor longus. The pubic symphysis is frequently tender but this does not help to differentiate the four clinical entities.

Occasionally there may be an obvious adductor tendinopathy or enthesopathy with localized tenderness, pain, and weakness on contraction, especially eccentric contraction, and a typical appearance of tendinopathy on ultrasound or MRI examination. More frequently there is no specific tendinopathy present.

Signs and Symptoms of Groin Pain

Unfortunately most patients with adductor-related groin pain continue to train and play until pain prevents them from running. When the condition has reached that stage, a lengthy period of rest and rehabilitation is usually required. However, if early warning signs are heeded, appropriate measures may prevent the development of the full blown syndrome. These early clinical warning signs are (from most common to least):

• Tightness/stiffness during or after activity with nil (or temporary only) relief from stretching
• Loss of acceleration
• Loss of maximal sprinting speed
• Loss of distance with long kick on run
• Vague discomfort with deceleration.

Treatment of Groin Pain

Traditional treatment for most types of groin pain was ‘rest’ but this most often resulted in a return of symptoms on resumption of activity. Compared with rest and passive electrotherapy, active rehabilitation provides more than 10 times the likelihood of pain-free successful return to sport. Thus, we outline a treatment protocol that combines experience and evidence from leading clinical centers. Five basic principles underpin a treatment regimen:

• Ensure that exercise is performed without pain.
• Identify and reduce the sources of increased load on the pelvis.
• Improve lumbopelvic stability.
• Strengthen local musculature using proven protocols.
• Progress the patient’s level of activity on the basis of regular clinical assessment.

These are outlined below.

1.   Ensure that exercise is performed without pain

The first and most important step is for the patient to cease training and playing in pain. Pain-free exercise is absolutely crucial for this rehabilitation program. If pain is experienced during any of the rehabilitation activities, or after them, that activity should be reduced or ceased altogether. Experienced clinicians use absence of pain on the key provocation tests (e.g. squeeze test and Thomas test) as a guide to progress the rehabilitation program and minimize the mechanical stress on injured tissues.

2.   Identify and reduce the sources of increased load on the pelvis

As discussed previously, it is essential to identify and reduce the sources of increased load on the pubic bones. This may involve:

• Reducing adductor muscle tone and guarding with soft tissue treatment and/or dry needling
• Correcting iliopsoas muscle shortening with local soft tissue treatment, neural stretching and mobilization of upper lumbar intervertebral joints
• Reducing glutens medius muscle tone and myofascial shortening with soft tissue treatment and/or dry needling
• Identifying and correcting any hip joint abnormality
• Mobilizing stiff intervertebral segments
• Improving core stability, especially activation of transversus abdominis and anterior pelvic floor muscles.

3.   Improve lumbopelvic stability

Research has demonstrated a delayed onset of action of transversus abdominis activity in patients with longstanding groin pain, suggesting that impaired core or lumbopelvic stability plays a role in the development of this condition.

4.   Strengthen local musculature using proven protocols

Once pain has settled and muscle shortening has been corrected in the adductor, iliopsoas and gluteal muscles, then a graduated pain-free muscle strengthening program can be commenced. A similar pre-season adductor muscle strengthening program reduced the incidence of adductor muscle strains in ice hockey players who were identified as at risk.

5.   Progress the patient’s level of activity on the basis of regular clinical assessment

The aim of the graded exercise program is to gradually increase the load on the pubic bones and surrounding tissues. Once the patient is pain-free, pain-free walking can begin and be gradually increased in speed and distance. The criteria for when the patient may return to running are when:

• Brisk walking is pain-free
• Resisted hip flexion in the Thomas position is pain-free
• There is no ‘crossover’ sign
• There is minimal adductor guarding.

Other non-surgical treatments

• Compression shorts have been advocated for those with mild pain who insist on continuing to train and play, and for those returning to sport after rehabilitation.
• The shorts substantially reduced pain when worn during exercise.
• The mechanism of action of compression shorts remains unclear, but Dutch researchers have reported that groin pain on resisted adduction (the ‘squeeze test’) was significantly reduced by the application of a pelvic belt.
• They speculated that relative pelvic instability may contribute to the groin pain typically attributed to tendinopathy.

Groin Pain is very common among athletes. A significant cause of long-standing issues is adductor-related groin discomfort. Alliance Rehab and Physical Therapy provide 24/7 access to online appointments. If you are suffering from Groin Pain then Contact us at our website or Call us at: 703-750-1204

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Clinical Features and Treatment of Acute Patellar (Kneecap) Trauma: 

Acute trauma to the patella (e.g. from a hockey stick or from a fall onto the kneecap) can cause a range of injuries from fracture of the patella to osteochondral damage of the patellofemoral joint with persisting patellofemoral joint pain. In some athletes, the pain settles without any long-term sequelae. If there is suspicion of fracture, X-ray should be obtained. It is important to be able to differentiate between a fracture of the patella and a bipartite patella. A skyline view of the patella should be performed in addition to normal views. If there is no evidence of fracture, the patient can be assumed to be suffering acute patellofemoral inflammation. This can be a difficult condition to treat. Treatment consists of NSAIDs, local electrotherapy (e.g. interferential stimulation, TENS) and avoidance of aggravating activities such as squatting or walking down stairs. Taping of the patella may alter the mechanics of patellar tracking and therefore reduce the irritation and pain.

Fracture of the Patella

• Patellar fractures can occur either by direct trauma, in which case the surrounding retinaculum can be intact, or by indirect injury from quadriceps contraction, in which case the retinaculum and the vastus muscles are usually torn.
• Undisplaced fractures of the patella with normal continuity of the extensor mechanism can be managed conservatively, initially with an extension splint.
• Over the next weeks as the fracture unites, the range of flexion can be gradually increased and the quadriceps strengthened in the inner range.
• Fractures with significant displacement, where the extensor mechanism is not intact, require surgical treatment. This involves reduction of the patella and fixation, usually with a tension band wire technique.
• The vastus muscle on both sides also needs to be repaired. The rehabilitation following this procedure is as for undisplaced fracture.

Patella Dislocation

• Patella dislocation occurs when the patella moves out of its groove laterally onto the lateral femoral condyle.
• Acute patella dislocation may be either traumatic with a good history of trauma and development of a hemarthrosis following injury, or atraumatic, which usually occurs in young girls with associated ligamentous laxity, does not have a good history of trauma, and is accompanied by mild-to-moderate swelling.

Clinical Features

Patients with traumatic patella dislocation usually complain that, on twisting or jumping, the knee suddenly gave way with the development of severe pain. Often the patient will describe a feeling of something ‘popping out’. Swelling develops almost immediately. The dislocation usually reduces spontaneously with knee extension; however, in some cases this may require some assistance or regional anesthesia (e.g. femoral nerve block). A number of factors predispose to dislocation of the patella:

• Femoral anteversion
• Shallow femoral groove
• Genu valgum
• Loose medial retinaculum
• Tight lateral retinaculum
• Vastus medialis dysplasia
• Increased Q angle
• Patellar alta
• Excessive subtalar pronation
• Patellar dysplasia
• General hypermobility

The main differential diagnosis of patella dislocation is an ACL rupture. Both conditions have similar histories of twisting, an audible ‘pop’, a feeling of something ‘going out’ and subsequent development of hemarthrosis. On examination, there is usually a gross effusion marked tenderness over the medial border of the patella and a positive lateral apprehension test when attempts are made to push the patella in a lateral direction. Any attempt to contract the quadriceps muscle aggravates the pain. X-rays, including anteroposterior, lateral, skyline, and intercondylar views, should be performed to rule out osteochondral fracture or a loose body.

Treatment

• Treatment of traumatic patella dislocation depends on presentation. Relatively atraumatic dislocations are treated conservatively.
• Traumatic first- or second-time dislocations (hemarthrosis present) are treated with arthroscopic washout and debridement.
• Recurrent dislocation is treated with surgical stabilization.
• As a result, the rehabilitation program is lengthy and emphasizes core stability, pelvic positioning, vastus medialis obliquus strength, and stretching of the lateral structures when tight.
• The most helpful addition to patellofemoral rehabilitation in the recent past is increased emphasis on core stability.
• Similar to ACL intervention exercises, rotational control of the limb under the pelvis is critical to knee and kneecap stability.

Patella Fracture is common among athletes. It is an injury to kneecap. Major symptom of Patella Fracture is knee swelling. Alliance Rehab & Physical Therapy is the best Rehab & Physical Therapy center in Virginia. We provide 24/7 access to online appointments, with most of the requests scheduled in less than 48 hours.

Contact Us at: 703-751-1008

http://www.alliancephysicaltherapyva.com

Spondylolisthesis: Back Condition And Treatment

Spondylolisthesis refers to the slipping of part or all of one vertebra forward on another. The term is derived from the Greek spondylos, meaning vertebra and olisthanein, meaning to slip or slide down a slippery path.

It is often associated with bilateral pars defects that usually develop in early childhood and have a definite family predisposition. Pars defects that develop due to athletic activity (stress fractures) rarely result in spondylolisthesis.

Spondylolisthesis is most commonly seen in children between the ages of 9 and 14, in the vast majority of cases it is the LS vertebra that slips forward on the S1. The spondylolisthesis is graded according to the degree of slip of the vertebra. A grade I slip denotes that a vertebra has slipped up to 25% over the body of the vertebra underlying it; in a grade II slip the displacement is greater than 25%; in a grade III slip, greater than 50%; and in a grade IV slip, greater than 75%. Lateral X-rays best demonstrate the extent of vertebral slippage.

Clinical Features

Grade I spondylolisthesis is often asymptomatic and the patients may be unaware of the defect. Patients with grade II or higher slips may complain of low back pain, with or without leg pain. The back pain is aggravated by extension activities.

On examination, there may be a palpable dip corresponding to the slip. Associated soft tissue abnormalities may be present. In considering the treatment of this condition, it is important to remember that the patient’s low back pain is not necessarily being caused by the spondylolisthesis.

Treatment

Treatment of athletes with grade I or grade II symptomatic spondylolisthesis involves:

• Rest from aggravating activities combined with abdominal and extensor stabilizing exercises and hamstring stretching.
• Antilordotic bracing, which may also be helpful.
• Mobilization of stiff joints above or below the slip on clinical assessment; gentle rotations may be helpful in reducing pain; manipulation should not be performed at the level of the slip.
• Athletes with grade I or grade II spondylolisthesis may return to sport after treatment when they are pain free on extension and have good spinal stabilization.
•  If the symptoms recur, activity must be ceased.
• Athletes with grade III or grade IV spondylolisthesis should avoid high speed or contact sports.
• Treatment is symptomatic. It is rare for a slip to progress; however, if there is evidence of progression, spinal fusion should be performed.

If you are being impacted in low back pain again then come instantly at Alliance Physical Therapy Center in VA & DC. Our Reduced Lower back Program uses a consistent, functional and outcomes-oriented approach to care that concentrates specifically on the lower back. Through an active and educational procession of treatment, our practitioners assist the affected person in returning to normal, activities as soon as possible. By providing comprehensive education in structure, pathology and proper proper the lower back, the affected person is motivated to participate in his or her recovery and in the prevention of future injury. For more information Call Now at: 703-205-1919

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Meaning of R.I.C.E.

The most important time in the treatment of acute soft tissue injuries is in the 24 hours immediately following injury. When soft tissue is injured, blood vessels are usually damaged too.

Thus, blood accumulates around damaged tissue and compresses adjoining tissues, which causes secondary hypoxic injury and further tissue damage. Consequently, every effort should be made to reduce bleeding at the site of injury. The most appropriate method of doing this is summarized by the letters RICE.

• R – Rest
• I -  Ice
• C – Compression
• E – Elevation

Rest

Whenever possible following injury the athlete should cease activity to decrease bleeding and swelling. For example, with a thigh contusion, bleeding will be increased by contraction of the quadriceps muscle during running. Where necessary, complete rest can be achieved with the use of crutches for a lower limb injury or a sling for upper limb injuries.

Ice

Immediately after injury, ice is principally used to reduce tissue metabolism. Ice is also used in the later stages of injury treatment as a therapeutic modality.

Ice can be applied in a number of forms:

• Crushed ice can be wrapped in a moist cloth or towel and placed around the injured area, held in place with a crepe bandage.
• Reusable frozen gel packs.
• Instant ice packs that do not need pre-cooling.
• Ice immersion in a bucket (useful for treatment of injuries of the extremities).
• Cold water and cooling sprays, which are often used in the immediate treatment of injuries but are unlikely to affect deeper tissues.

Although there is no high-quality evidence for how long, and how often, to apply ice after an acute injury, a systematic review suggested that intermittent 10-minute ice treatments are most effective at cooling injured animal tissue and healthy human tissue. Many practitioners apply ice for 15 minutes every I -2 hours initially and then gradually reduce the frequency of application over the next 24 hours.

Ice should not be applied where local tissue circulation is impaired (e.g. in Raynaud’s phenomenon, peripheral vascular disease) or to patients who suffer from a cold allergy. Other adverse effects of prolonged ice application are skin burns and nerve damage.

Compression

Compression of the injured area with a firm bandage reduces bleeding and, therefore, minimizes swelling. Compression should be applied both during and after ice application; the width of the bandage applied varies according to the injured area.

 The bandage should be applied firmly but not so tightly as to cause pain. Bandaging should start just distal to the site of bleeding with each layer of the bandage overlapping the underlying layer by one-half. It should extend to at least a hands breadth proximal to the injury margin.

Elevation

Elevation of the injured part decreases hydrostatic pressure and, thus, reduces the accumulation of interstitial fluid. Elevation can be achieved by using a sling for upper limb injuries and by resting lower limbs on a chair, pillows or bucket. It is important to ensure that the lower limb is above the level of the pelvis.

Other minimizing factors

In the initial phase of injury (first 24 hours), heat and heat rubs, alcohol, moderate/intense activity and vigorous soft tissue therapy should all be avoided? Whether or not electrotherapeutic modalities (e.g. magnetic field therapy, interferential stimulation, TENS) provide effective pain relief and reduction of swelling in the initial period is a subject of debate.

It is usually suggested to exercise R.I.C.E. at duration of 4 to 6 time for up to 48 time after an damage. Heat therapies are appropriate for some accidents, but should only be regarded after swelling has receded, roughly 72 time after an damage. If the part of one’s body does not reply to R.I.C.E. treatment within 48 time, it would be sensible to seek advice from your doctor in the occasion a serious damage has happened such as inner blood loss or a damaged cuboid.

At Alliance Physical Therapy Our team works with individuals who have undergone a total hip or knee replacement with arthroscopic or other surgeries, sustained trauma to a bone, or have a bone or soft tissue disease. We focus on helping patients regain their strength, mobility and endurance so they can return home and resume their regular routines.For More Information Call At: 703-205-1919

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Conditions Masquerading as Sports Injury:

Not every patient who presents to the sports medicine clinician has a sports-related condition. Sports medicine, like every branch of medicine, has its share of conditions that must not be missed but appear at first to be rather benign conditions. The aim of this article is to remind you that the patient with the minor ‘calf strain‘ may, in fact, have a deep venous thrombosis, or that the young basketball player who has been labeled as having Osgood – Schlatter disease because of  playing may actually have an osteosarcoma.  The first part of the article outlines a clinical approach that should maximize your chances of recognizing a condition that is masquerading as a sports-related condition. The second part of the article describes some of these conditions and illustrates how they can present in the sports medicine setting.

Examination

The key to recognizing that everything is not as the first impression might suggest is to take a thorough history and perform a detailed physical examination. If the clinician has not recognized a masquerading condition from the history and examination, it is unlikely that he or she will order the appropriate investigations to make the diagnosis. For example, if a patient presents with tibial pain and it is, in fact, due to hypocalcaemia secondary to lung cancer, a bone scan of the tibia looking for stress fracture will usually not help with the diagnosis, but a history of weight loss, occasional hemoptysis and associated shoulder pain, the history of associated arm tightness and the physical finding of prominent superficial veins are more important clues to axillary vein thrombosis than would be a gray-scale ultrasound scan looking for rotator cuff tendinopathy.

If there is something about the history and examination that does not fit the pattern of the common conditions, then consider alternative, less common conditions. To be able to make the diagnosis of a rare or non-musculoskeletal condition, you must ask yourself, Could this be a rare condition or unusual manifestation? Then other options are entertained, and the appropriate diagnosis can be conceived. Thus, successful diagnosis of masquerading conditions requires recognition of a discrepancy between the patient’s clinical features and the typical pattern that one is familiar with from clinical experience.

Bone and Soft Tissue Tumors

Primary malignant tumors of bone and soft tissues are rare but when they occur it is most likely to be in the younger age group (second to third decade). Osteosarcomata can present at the distal or proximal end of long bones, more commonly in the lower limb, producing joint pain. Patients often recognize that pain is aggravated by activity and hence present to the sports medicine clinic. The pathological diagnosis of osteosarcoma is dependent on the detection of tumor producing bone and so an X-ray may reveal a moth eaten appearance with new bone formation in the soft tissues and lifting of the periosteum (Codman’s triangle) .In young patients, the differential diagnosis includes osteomyelitis. It is recommended that any child or adolescent with bone pain be X-rayed. Surgery is the preferred treatment.

Synovial sarcomata frequently involve the larger lower joints such as the knee and ankle. Patients present with pain, often at night or with activity, maybe with instability and swelling.

Synovial chondromatosis and pigmented villonodular synovitis are benign tumors of the synovium found mainly in the knee, which present with mechanical symptoms.

Osteoid osteoma is a benign bone tumor that often presents as exercise-related bone pain and tenderness and is, therefore, frequently misdiagnosed as a stress fracture. The bone scan appearance is also similar to that of a stress fracture, although the isotope uptake is more intense and widespread. This condition is characterized clinically by the presence of night pain and by the abolition of symptoms with the use of aspirin. The tumor has a characteristic appearance on CT scan with a central nidus.

Ganglion cysts are lined by connective tissue, contain mucinous fluid and are found mainly around the wrist, hand, knee and foot. They may be to a joint capsule or tendon sheath and may have a connection to the synovial cavity. They are usually asymptomatic but can occasionally cause pain and deformity.

Rheumatological Conditions

These are dealt with in greater detail in the section on multiple joint problems. Patients with inflammatory musculoskeletal disorders frequently present to the sports medicine clinic with a masquerading traumatic or mechanical condition. Low back pain of ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic enthesopathy or early rheumatoid arthritis is common examples.

In patients presenting with an acutely swollen knee without a history of precipitant trauma or patellar tendinopathy without overuse, the clinician may be alerted to the possibility that these are inflammatory in origin. Prominent morning joint or back stiffness, night pain or extra-articular manifestations of rheumatologlcal conditions (e.g. skin rashes, nail abnormalities), bowel disturbance, eye involvement (conjunctivitis, iritis) or urethral discharge may all provide clues.

Disorders of Muscle

Dermotomyositis and polymyositis are inflammatory connective tissue disorders characterized by proximal limb girdle weakness, often without pain Dermatomyositis, unlike polymyositis, is also associated with a photosensitive skin rash in light-exposed areas (hands and face). In the older adult, dermatomyositis may be associated with malignancy in approximately 50% of cases. The primary malignancy may be easily detectable or occult. In the younger adult, weakness may be profound (e.g. unable to rise from the floor) but in the early stages may manifest only as under-performance in training or competition.

Dermatomyositis and polymyositis may also be associated with other connective tissue disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus or systemic sclerosis, and muscle abnormality is characterized by elevated creatine kinase levels and electromyography (EMG) and muscle biopsy changes.

Regional dystrophies such as limb girdle dystrophy and facio-scapulo-humeral dystrophy may also adults. They are also associated with characteristic changes.

Endocrine Disorders

Several endocrine disorders, for example, hypothyroidism and hyperparathyroidism, may be associated with the deposition of calcium pyrophosphate in joints. Patients may develop acute pseudo gout or a polyarticular inflammatory arthritis resembling rheumatoid arthritis. X-rays of the wrists or knees may demonstrate chondrocalcinosis of the menisci or triangular fibro cartilage complex. Adhesive capsulitis or septic arthritis may be the presenting complaint in patients with diabetes mellitus and those with other endocrine disorders such as acromegaly may develop premature osteoarthritis or carpal tunnel syndrome. Patients with hypocalcaemia secondary to malignancy (e.g. of the lung) or other conditions such as hyperparathyroidism can present with bone pain as well as constipation, confusion and renal calculi. A proximal myopathy may develop in patients with primary Cushings syndrome or after corticosteroid use.

Vascular Disorders

Patients with venous thrombosis or arterial abnormalities may present with limb pain and swelling aggravated by exercise. Calf, femoral or axillary veins are common sites for thrombosis. While a precipitant cause may be apparent (e.g. recent surgery or air travel), consider also the thrombophilias such as the antiphospholipid syndrome or deficiencies of protein C, protein S, anti thrombin III or factor V Leiden.

The Claudicant pain of peripheral vascular disease is most likely to be first noticed with exercise and so patients may present to the sports medicine practioner. Remember also that arteriopathy can occur in patients with diabetes. Various specific vascular entrapments are also found, such as popliteal artery entrapment, which presents as exercise related calf pain, and thoracic outlet syndrome.

Genetic Disorders

Marfans syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder of fibril in characterized by musculoskeletal, cardiac and ocular abnormalities. Musculoskeletal problems are common due to joint hyper mobility, ligament laxity, scoliosis or spondylolysis. In patients with the Marfanoid habitus, referral for echocardiography and ophthalmological opinion should be considered as sudden carac death or lens dislocation may result. Hemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive disorder of iron handling, which results in iron overload.

Patients may present with a calcium pyrophosphate arthropathy with characteristic involvement of the second and third metacarpophalangeal joints and hook-shaped osteophytes seen on X-ray of these joints. While ferritin levels are raised in patients with hemochromatosis, it is important to remember that ferritin is also an acute-phase protein and so levels can be elevated in response to inflammatory arthropathy.

Infection

Bone and joint infections, while uncommon, may have disastrous consequences if the diagnosis is missed. Bone pain in children, worse at night or with activity, should alert the clinician to the possibility of osteomyelitis. Bone infection near a joint may result in a reactive joint effusion. Septic arthritis is rare in the normal joint. In arthritic, recently arthrocentesed or diabetic joints, sepsis is much more common. Rapid joint destruction may follow if left untreated.

Even though Staphylococcus aureus is the causative organism in more than 50% of cases of acute septic joints, it is imperative that joint aspiration for Gram stain and culture and blood cultures are taken before commencement of antibiotic treatment. Once only or repeated joint lavage may be considered in patients receiving intravenous antibiotic treatment. The immune compromised patient may present with a chronic septic arthritis. In this situation, tuberculosis or fungal infections should be considered.

Regional Pain Syndromes

Complex regional pain syndrome type 1 (formerly known as reflex sympathetic dystrophy [RSD]) is a post-traumatic phenomenon characterized by localized pain out of proportion to the injury, vasomotor disturbances, edema and delayed recovery from injury. The vasomotor disturbances of an extremity manifest as vasodilatation (warmth, redness) or vasoconstriction (coolness, cyanosis, mottling). Early mobilization and avoidance of surgery are two important keys to successful management.

Myofascial pain syndromes develop secondary to either acute or overuse trauma. They present as regional pain associated with the presence of one or more active trigger points.

Fibromyalgia is a chronic pain syndrome characterized by widespread pain, chronic fatigue, decreased pain threshold, sleep disturbance, psychological stress and diffusely tender muscles. It is often associated with other symptoms, including irritable bowel syndrome, dyspareunia, headache, irritable bladder and subjective joint swelling and pain. Fibromyalgia is diagnosed on the examination finding of 11of 18 specific tender point sites in a patient with widespread pain. Current treatment evidence is for a stepwise program emphasizing education, certain medications, exercise and cognitive therapy. Chronic fatigue syndrome has many similarities to fibromyalgia’s and may be the same disease process. It may present as excessive post-exercise muscle soreness but is always associated with excessive fatigue. Behavioral therapy and graded exercise therapy have shown promise as treatment.

At Alliance Physical Therapy we provide 24/7 access to online appointments, with most of the requests scheduled in less than 48 hours. For More Information Call Now at: 703-751-1008

http://www.alliancephysicaltherapyva.com/

Diagnosis and Treatment of Wrist Injuries:

The wrist joint has multiple axes of movement: flexion-extension and radial ulnar deviation occur at the radiocarpal joints, and pronation-supination occurs at the distal and proximal radioulnar joints. These movements provide mobility for hand function. Injuries to the wrist often occur due to a fall on the outstretched hand. In sportspeople, the most common acute injuries are fractures of the distal radius or scaphoid, or damage to an intercarpal ligament. Intercarpal ligament injuries are becoming more frequently recognized and, if they are not treated appropriately (e.g. including surgical repair where indicated), may result in long-term disability. The anatomy of the wrist and hand is complex and therefore a thorough knowledge of this region is essential to diagnose and treat sports injuries accurately. The bony anatomy consists of a proximal row and a distal row, which are bridged by the scaphoid bone. Normally, the distal carpal row should be stable; thus, a ligamentous injury here can greatly impair the integrity of the wrist. Here a ligamentous injury disrupts important kinematics between the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum, resulting in carpal instability with potential weakness and impairment of hand function.

History:

It is essential to determine the mechanism of the injury causing wrist pain.  These injuries are commonly encountered in high-velocity activities such as snowboarding, rollerblading, or falling off a bike. A patient may fracture the hook of hamate while swinging a golf club, tennis racquet or bat and striking a hard object (e.g. the ground). It is very useful to determine the site of the pain; the causes of volar pain are different from those of dorsal wrist pain.

Other important aspects of the history may include:

• Hand dominance
• Occupation (computer related, manual labor, food service industry)
• History of past upper extremity fractures including childhood fractures/injuries
• History of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid dysfunction, diabetes
• Any unusual sounds (e.g. clicks, clunks, snaps, etc.)
• recurrent wrist swelling raises the suspicion of wrist instability
• Musician (number of years playing, hours of practise per week, change in playing, complex piece, etc.)

Examination Involves:

1.    Observation

2.    Active movements

• Flexion/ extension
• Supination/pronation
• Radial/ulnar deviation

3.    Passive movements

• Extension
• Flexion

4.    Palpation

• Distal forearm
• Radial snuffbox
• Base of metacarpals
• Lunate
• Head of ulna
• Radioulnar joint

5.    Special tests

• Watson’s test for scapholunate injury
• Stress of triangular fibrocartilage complex
• Grip- Jamar dynamometer (may be contraindicated if a maximal effort is not permitted, e.g. after tendon repair)
• Dexterity- Moberg pick-up test
• Sensation- Semmes Weinstein monofilament testing
• Nerve entrapment- Tinel’s sign

6.    Standardized rating scales

• Several valid and reliable assessment scales can quantify function of the wrist specifically or the upper extremity after an Injury.

Diagnosis of Wrist Injuries:

• Plain Radiography

If ligament injury is suspected, also obtain a PA view with clenched fist. A straight lateral view of the wrist, with the dorsum of the distal forearm and the hand forming a straight line, permits assessment of the distal radius, the lunate, the scaphoid, and the capitate and may reveal subtle instability. The lateral radiograph of the normal wrist can be. These bones should be aligned with each other and with the base of the third metacarpal. A clenched fist PA view should be taken if scapholunate instability is suspected.

• Special Imaging Studies

The combination of the complex anatomy of the wrist and subtle wrist injuries that can cause substantial morbidity has led to development of specialized wrist imaging techniques. A carpal tunnel view with the wrist in dorsiflexion allows inspection of the hook of hamate and ridge of the trapezium. For suspected mechanical pathology, such as an occult ganglion, an occult fracture, non-union or bone necrosis, several modalities are useful (e.g. ultrasonography, radionuclide bone scan, CT scan or MRI). Ultrasonography is a quick and accessible way to assess soft tissue abnormalities such as tendon injury, synovial thickening, ganglions, and synovial cysts. Bone scans have high sensitivity and low specificity; thus, they can effectively rule out subtle fractures.

Treatment of Wrist Injuries:

Treatments for wrist problems vary greatly. Treatment for wrist injury may include first aid measures. Treatment depends on:

• The position, type, and seriousness of the injury.
• How long ago the injury happened.
• Your age, health problem and actions (such as work, sports, or hobbies).

Symptoms and Treatment of Hand Pain:

Hand and finger injuries finger injuries are extremely common in sport and, although the majority require minimal treatment, some are potentially serious and require immobilization, precise splinting, or even surgery. Finger injuries are often neglected by athletes in the expectation that they will resolve spontaneously. Many present too late for effective treatment. The importance of early assessment and management must be stressed so that long-term deformity and functional impairment can be avoided. Many hand and finger injuries require specific rehabilitation and appropriate protection upon resumption of sport. Joints in this region do not respond well to immobilization, therefore, full immobilization should be minimized.

Mechanism of Injury:

The mechanism of injury is the most important component of the history of acute hand injuries. A direct, severe blow to the fingers may result in a fracture, whereas a blow to the point of the finger may produce an interphalangeal dislocation, joint sprain or long flexor or extensor tendon avulsion. A punching injury often results in a fracture at the base of the first metacarpal or to the neck of one of the other metacarpals usually the fifth. An avulsion of the flexor digitorum profundus tendon, usually to the fourth finger, is suggested by a history of a patient grabbing an opponent’s clothing while attempting a tackle. Associated features such as an audible crack, degree of pain, swelling, bruising, and loss of function should also be noted.

Signs and Symptoms:

Carefully palpate the bones and soft tissues of the hand and fingers, looking for tenderness. The examiner should always be conscious of what structure is being palpated at any particular time. The joints should be examined to determine active and passive range of movement and stability. Stability should be tested both in an anteroposterior direction and with ulnar and radial deviation to assess the collateral ligaments. The cause of any loss of active range of movement should be carefully assessed and not presumed to be due to swelling. Normal range of motion for the second to fifth digits is approximately 80 degree of flexion at the DIP, 100 degree of flexion at the PIP and 90 degree of flexion at the MCP joint. A common injury site that can be overlooked is the volar plate, a thick fibrocartilagenous tissue that reinforces the phalangeal joints on the palmer or volar surface.

The extensor tendons of the hand are often divided into six compartments. At the wrist on the dorsal side of the hand, the tendons are encased in synovial sheaths as they pass under the extensor retinaculum. When palpating in the most radial of the distal end of the radius. The extensor pollicis longus angles sharply around the bony prominence and can damage or even rupture the tendon after a serious wrist fracture. The anatomical snuffbox is composed of the extensor pollicis longus and brevis and abductor pollicis longus. The floor of the snuffbox is the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb. Clinically this is a significant region for several reasons. Tenderness may suggest scaphoid fracture. The deep branch of the radial arterial passes through as well as the superficial branch of the radial nerve; consequently, if a cast or splint is applied too tightly, it can lead to numbness in the thumb.

Examination Involves:

1. Observation and sensation testing as per the wrist. Special note should be made of the hand arches and any deformities at the proximal or distal interphalangeal joints.

• Hand at rest
• Hand with clenched fist

2.  Active movements-fingers (all Joints)

• Flexion
• Extension
• Abduction
• Adduction

3.  Active movements-thumb

• Flexion
• Extension
• Palmar abduction
• Palmar adduction
• Opposition

4.  Resisted movements (tendons)

• Flexor digitorum profundus
• Flexor digitorum superficialis
• Extensor tendon

5. Special test

• Ulnar collateral ligament of the first MCP joint
• IP joint collateral ligaments

Diagnosis of Hand Injuries:

Routine radiographs of the hand include the PA, oblique and lateral views. All traumatic finger injuries should be X-rayed. Ideally, ‘dislocations’ need to be radiographed before reduction to exclude fracture and after reduction to confirm relocation. Even when pre-reduction radiographs are not performed because reduction has occurred on the field, post-reduction films should be obtained after the game. Care should be taken with lateral views to isolate the affected finger to avoid bony overlap. The use of more sophisticated investigation techniques is usually not required.

Treatment of Hand Injuries:

• The functional hand requires mobility, stability, sensitivity, and freedom from pain. It may be necessary to obtain stability by surgical methods.
• However, conservative rehabilitation is essential to regain mobility and long-term freedom from pain, Treatment and rehabilitation of hand injuries is complex.
• As the hand is unforgiving of mismanagement, practitioners who do not see hand injuries regularly should ideally refer patients to an experienced hand therapist, or at least obtain advice while managing the patient.
• Inflammation and swelling are obvious in the hand and fingers.
• During the inflammatory phase, the therapist must aim to reduce edema and monitor progress by signs of redness, heat and increased pain.
• During the regenerative phase (characterized by proliferation of scar tissue), the therapist can use supportive splints and active exercises to maintain range of motion.
• During remodeling, it is appropriate to use dynamic and serial splints, and active and active assisted exercises, in addition to heat, stretching and electrotherapeutic modalities.

Causes And Treatment of Rotator Cuff Tendinopathy:

Rotator cuff tendinopathy is a common cause of shoulder pain and impingement in athletes. In this condition, the rotator cuff tendons become swollen and hyper cellular, the collagen matrix is disorganized and the tendon weaker. Studies in running rats and in human swimmers suggest the major determinant of the onset of tendinopathy is the volume (e.g. distance swum, time running) of work. Apoptosis (programmed cell death) and associated pathways are increased in overuse tendinopathy and may play a role in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy.

Clinical Features

The athlete with rotator cuff tendinopathy complains of pain with overhead activity such as throwing, swimming and overhead shots in racquet sports. Activities undertaken at less than 90 degree of abduction are usually pain-free. There may also be a history of associated symptoms of instability, such as recurrent subluxation or episodes of dead arm.

On examination, there may be tenderness over the supraspinatus tendon proximal to or at its insertion into the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Active movement may reveal a painful arc on abduction between approximately 70 degree and 120 degree. Internal rotation is commonly reduced. The most accurate method to clinically assess rotator cuff strength is to measure developed resistance when the scapula is stabilized in a retracted position.

For the athlete with rotator cuff tendinopathy, symptoms can be reproduced with impingement tests, as well as pain at the extremes of passive flexion. Pain will also occur with resisted contraction of the supraspinatus, which is best performed with resisted upward movement with the shoulder joint in 90 degree of abduction, 30 degree of horizontal flexion and internal rotation .The investigation of choice in rotator cuff tendinopathy is MRI. These examinations may also demonstrate the presence of a partial tear of the rotator cuff.

Treatment of Rotator Cuff Tendinopathy

The treatment of rotator cuff tendinopathy should be considered in two parts.

• The first part is to treat the tendinopathy itself. The patient should avoid the aggravating activity and apply ice locally.
• There is no level 2 evidence to support NSAIDs, ultrasound interferential stimulation, laser, magnetic field therapy or local massage.
• There is level 2 evidence to support nitric oxide donor therapy (glyceryl trinitrate [GTN] patches applied locally at 1.25 mg/day) and for a single corticosteroid injection.
• Glyceryl trinitrate patches come in varying doses: a 0.5 mg patch should outcomes occurred at three to six months, so patients need to have this explained.
• A corticosteroid injection into the subacromial space may reduce the athlete’s symptoms sufficiently to allow commencement of an appropriate rehabilitation program.
• It has been reported that the second part of the treatment of rotator cuff tendinopathy should be the correction of associated abnormalities.
• These include glenohumeral instability, muscle weakness or in coordination, soft tissue tightness, impaired scapulohumeral rhythm and training errors.
• Impaired scapulohumeral rhythm may predispose to rotator cuff tendinopathy and must be assessed and treated.
• The treatment of scapulohumeral rhythm abnormalities is considered.
• Decreased rotator cuff strength or an imbalance between the internal and external rotators of the shoulder also predisposes to the development of rotator cuff tendinopathy.
• Treatment involves strengthening of the external rotators as they are usually relatively weak compared with the internal rotators.
• An exercise program to strengthen the rotator cuff muscles is described.
• Posterior capsular tightness is commonly associated with decreased internal rotation and reduced rotator cuff strength.
• Stretching of the posterior capsule is helpful. Instability is a common cause of rotator cuff tendinopathy and must be considered in any patient who presents with symptoms typical of rotator cuff tendon problems.
• If the presence of instability is not recognized, rotator cuff tendinopathy is likely to recur upon return to sport.
• While it is possible that correction of any of these disorders may improve tendinopathy, there is no level 2 evidence to support any particular rehabilitation strategy or regimen for managing supraspinatus tendinopathy.
• This provides fertile ground for novel clinical research trials.
• Tightness and focal muscle thickening of the rotator cuff muscle hems may also predispose to the development of rotator cuff tendinopathy.
• These changes reduce the ability of the musculotendinous complex to elongate and absorb shock. They may also alter biomechanics by reducing the full range of motion and impairing scapular control.
• These soft tissue abnormalities should be corrected. Abnormalities along the kinetic chain must be identified and corrected.
• Technique faults, for example, in throwing or swimming, should be corrected with the aid of a coach. Training errors need to be corrected.
• Overuse should be avoided.

Clinical Features, Causes And Treatment of Ankle Pain:

Lateral ankle pain is generally associated with a biomechanical abnormality. The two most common causes are peroneal tendinopathy and sinus tarsi syndrome.

Examination

Examination is as for the patient with acute ankle injury with particular attention to testing resisted eversion of the peroneal tendons and careful palpation for tenderness and crepitus.

Peroneal Tendinopathy

The most common overuse injury causing lateral ankle pain is peroneal tendinopathy. The peroneus longus and peroneus brevis tendons cross the ankle joint within a fibro-osseous tunnel, posterior to the lateral malleolus. The peroneus brevis tendon inserts into the tuberosity on the lateral aspect of the base of the fifth metatarsal. The peroneus longus tendon passes under the plantar surface of the foot to insert into the lateral side of the base of the first metatarsal and medial cuneiform. The peroneal tendons share a common tendon sheath proximal to the distal tip of the fibula, after which they have their own tendon sheaths. The peroneal muscles serve as ankle dorsi flexors in addition to being the primary evertors of the ankle.

Causes

Peroneal Tendinopathy may either as a result of an acute ankle inversion injury or secondary to an overuse injury. Soft footwear may predispose to the development of peroneal tendinopathy. Common causes of an overuse injury include:

• Excessive eversion of the foot such as occurs when running on slopes or cambered surfaces.
• Excessive pronation of the foot.
• Secondary to tight ankle plantar flexors (most commonly soleus) resulting in excessive load on the lateral muscles.
• Excessive action of the peroneal (e.g. dancing, basketball, volleyball).

An inflammatory arthropathy may also result in the development of a peroneal tenosynovitis and subsequent peroneal tendinopathy. It has been suggested that peroneal tendinopathy may be due to the excessive pulley action of, and abrupt change in direction of, the peroneal tendons at the lateral malleolus.

There are three main sites of peroneal tendinopathy:

• Posterior to the lateral malleolus
• At the peroneal trochlea
• At the plantar surface of the cuboids.

Clinical Features

The athlete commonly presents with:

• Lateral ankle or heel pain and swelling which is aggravated by activity and relieved by rest.
• Local tenderness over the peroneal tendons on examination sometimes associated with swelling and crepitus (a true paratenonitis).
• Painful passive inversion and resisted eversion, although in some cases eccentric contraction may be required to reproduce the pain.
• Possible associated calf muscle tightness.
• Excessive subtalar pronation or stiffness of the subtalar or midtarsal joints that is demonstrated on biomechanical examination.

Investigations

MRI is the recommended investigation and shows characteristic features of tendinopathy-increased signal and tendon thickening.13 If MRI is unavailable, an ultrasound may be performed. If an underlying inflammatory arthropathy is suspected, obtain blood tests to assess for rheumatologic and inflammatory markers.

Treatment

• Treatment initially involves settling the pain with rest from aggravating activities, analgesic medication if needed and soft tissue therapy and physical therapy.
• Stretching in conjunction with mobilization of the subtalar and Midtarsal joints may be helpful.
• Footwear should be assessed and the use of lateral heel wedges or orthoses may be required to correct biomechanical abnormalities.
• Strengthening exercises should include resisted eversion (e.g. rubber tubing, rotagym), especially in plantar flexion as this position maximally engages the peroneal muscles.

In severe cases, surgery may be required, which may involve a synovectomy, tendon debridement or repair.

Exercise of Type 1 Diabetes and Type 2 Diabetes Disease: 

Firstly, the adjustments the athlete with diabetes might make if he or she wishes to exercise and, secondly, what the risks and benefits are, both in the short term and long term, of exercise to the patient with diabetes.

There are many examples of athletes with diabetes who have been extremely successful. British rower Steven Redgrave developed diabetes at the age of 35 having won gold medals at each of the previous four Olympic Games. Following his diagnosis he was able to continue training and competing and won a fifth consecutive gold medal in the Sydney Olympics Games 2000.

There are two distinct types of diabetes mellitus:

1. Insulin-Dependent (Type 1)
2. Non-Insulin-Dependent (Type 2)

Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes(Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, IDDM), previously known as juvenile-onset diabetes, is thought to be an inherited autoimmune disease in which antibodies are produced against the beta cells of the pancreas. This ultimately results in the absence of endogenous insulin production, which is the characteristic feature of type 1 diabetes. The incidence of type 1 diabetes varies throughout the world but represents approximately 10-15% of diabetic cases in the western world. The onset commonly occurs in childhood and adolescence but can become symptomatic at any age. Insulin administration is essential to prevent ketosis, coma and death. The aims of treatment are tight control of blood glucose levels and prevention of micro vascular and macro vascular complications.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 Diabetes (Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, NIDDM), previously know maturity-onset or adult-onset diabetes, is a disease as the former names suggest, of later onset ,linked to both genetic and lifestyle factors. It is characterized by diminished insulin secretion relative to serum glucose levels in conjunction with peripheral insulin resistance, both of which result in chronic hyperglycemia. Approximately 90% of individuals with diabetes have type 2 diabetes and it is thought to affect 3-7% of people in Western countries. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes increases with age. The pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes remains unknown but it is believed to be a heterogeneous disorder with a strong genetic factor. Approximately 80% of individuals with 2 diabetes are obese.

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by three major metabolic abnormalities:

• Impairment in pancreatic beta cells insulin secretion in response to a glucose stimulus.
• Reduced sensitivity to the action of insulin in major organ systems such as muscle, liver and adipose tissue.
• Excessive hepatic glucose production in the basal state.

Exercise and Diabetes:

The sports physician should be encouraged to work closely with the endocrinologist when considering exercise prescription for a diabetic patient. The target of an adult should be to achieve at least 30 minutes of continuous moderate activity, equivalent to brisk walking five or six days a week, with the flexibility of shorter bouts of more intense activity being considered important. This is provided that cardiovascular and hypertensive problems are taken into account. Heart rate may be an unreliable indicator of exertion because of autonomic neuropathy, and the rating of perceived exertion scales may be more useful.

Although exercise in conjunction with a proper diet and medications is the cornerstone in the treatment of diabetes, special care must be taken in those taking insulin. Both insulin and exercise independently facilitate glucose transport across the mitochondrial membrane by promoting GLUT4 transporter proteins from intracellular vesicles. The action of insulin and exercise is also cumulative. As such, an exercising type 1 diabetic will have lowered insulin requirements, and may notice up to a 30% reduction in insulin requirements with exercise. Importantly, in the person with type 1 diabetes, glycemic control may not be improved with regular exercise if changes in the individuals diet and insulin dosage do not appropriately match exercise requirements. In the absence of exercise, even for a few days, the increased insulin sensitivity begins to decline.

All patients with diabetes should carry an identification card or bracelet identifying them as having diabetes. They should be educated to be alert to the early signs of hypoglycemia for at least 6-12 hours after exercise. It is essential that they carry glucose tablets or an alternative source of glucose with them at all times. Dehydration during exercise should be prevented by adequate fluid consumption. It is also recommended that the diabetic athlete exercise with somebody else, if possible, in case of adverse reactions.

Benefits of Exercise:

• The benefits of exercise in type 1 diabetics include improved insulin sensitivity, improved blood lipid profiles, decreased heart rate and blood pressure at rest, decreased body weight and possible decreased risk of coronary heart disease.
• It does not appear that exercise improves glycemic control; however, insulin requirements may be decreased slightly.
• While exercise may not improve glucose control, the benefits of exercise in those with diabetes occur mainly through reducing the risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
• People with type 1 diabetes typically live longer if they participate in regular physical activity as a part of their lifestyle.
• It is well recognized that exercise reduces the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. There are also considerable benefits for those with type 2 diabetes.
• A program of regular physical activity can reverse many of the defects in metabolism of both fat and glucose that occur in people with type 2 diabetes.

As noted above, Hb is used as an index of long term blood glucose control. The lower the value, the better.  Hb is reduced by chronic exercise in people with type 2 diabetes. The evidence for improvement of Hb with exercise in type I diabetes is not as convincing.

Exercise and Type 1 Diabetes

Control of blood glucose is achieved in a patient with type 1 diabetes through a balance in the carbohydrate intake, exercise level and insulin dosage. The meal plan and insulin dosage should be adjusted according to the patient’s response to exercise. Unfortunately a degree of trial and error is necessary for type 1 diabetics taking up new activities. Frequent self-monitoring should occur, at least until a balance is achieved among diet, exercise and insulin parameters. Those with blood glucose levels less than 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL) require a pre-exercise carbohydrate snack (e.g. sports drink, juice, glucose tablet, fruit).

• Exercise of 20-30 minutes at less than 70% VO (e.g. walking, golf, table tennis) requires a rapidly absorbable carbohydrate (15 g fruit exchange or 60 calories) before exercise but needs minimal insulin dosing adjustments.
• More vigorous activity of less than I hour (e.g. jogging, swimming, cycling, skiing, tennis) often requires a 25% reduction in pre-exercise insulin and 15-30 g of rapidly absorbed carbohydrate exchange before and every 30 minutes after the onset of activity.
• If early morning activity is to be performed the basal insulin from the evening dose of intermediate-acting insulin may need to be reduced by 20-50%, with checking of the morning blood glucose level.
• The morning regular-acting insulin dose may also need to be reduced by 30-50% before breakfast, or even omitted if exercise is performed before food.
• Depending on the intensity and duration of the initial activity and likelihood of further activity, a reduction of 30-50% may be needed with each subsequent meal.
• After exercise hyperglycemia will occur, but insulin should still be decreased by 25-50% (because insulin sensitivity is increased for 12-15 hours after activity has ceased).
• Consuming carbohydrates within 30 minutes after exhaustive, glycogen-depleting exercise allows for more efficient restoration of muscle glycogen.
• This will also help prevent post-exercise, late-onset hypoglycemia, which can occur up to 24 hours following such exercise.
• If exercise is unexpected, then insulin adjustment may be impossible. Instead, supplementation with 20-30 g of carbohydrate, at the onset of exercise and every 30 minutes thereafter, may prevent hypoglycemia.
• In elite athletes and with intense bouts of exercise, reductions in insulin dosage may be even higher than those listed above.
• During periods of inactivity (e.g. holidays, recovery from injury), increased insulin requirements are to be expected.

Exercise and Type 2 Diabetes

• Those patients with type 2 diabetes who are managed with diet therapy alone do not usually need to make any adjustments for exercise.
• Patients taking oral hypoglycemic drugs may need to halve their doses on days of prolonged exercise or withhold them altogether, depending on their blood glucose levels.
• They are also advised to carry some glucose with them and to be able to recognize the symptoms of hypoglycemia.
• Hypoglycemia is a particular risk in those people with diabetes taking sulfonylureas due to their long half lives and increased endogenous insulin production.
• Biguanides provide less of a problem as they do not increase insulin production.

Exercise and the Complications of Diabetes:

Exercise is often neglected when the secondary complications of diabetes occur. Some unique concerns for the patient with diabetes that warrant close scrutiny include autonomic and peripheral neuropathy, retinopathy and nephropathy. Poor glucose control appears to be associated with an increased occurrence of neuropathy.

• Abnormal autonomic function is common among those with diabetes of long duration.
• The risks of exercise when autonomic neuropathy is present include hypoglycemia, abnormal heart rate and blood pressure responses (e.g. postural drop), impaired sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activity and abnormal thermoregulation.
• Patients with autonomic neuropathy are at high risk of developing complications during exercise. Sudden death and myocardial infarction have been attributed to autonomic neuropathy and diabetes. High-intensity activity should be avoided, as should rapid changes in body position and extremes in temperature. Water activities and stationary cycling are recommended.
• Peripheral neuropathy (typically manifested as loss of sensation and of two point discrimination) usually begins symmetrically in the lower and upper extremities and progresses proximally.
• Podiatric review should occur on a regular basis, and correct footwear can prevent the onset of foot ulcers.
• Regular close inspection of the feet and use of proper footwear are important and the patient should avoid exercise that may cause trauma to the feet.
• Feet and toes should be kept dry and clean and dry socks should also be used.
• Non-weight-bearing activities, such as swimming, cycling and arm exercises, are recommended in those with insensitive feet.
• Activities that improve balance are appropriate choices.
• Diabetics with proliferative retinopathy should avoid exercise that increases systolic blood pressures to 170 mmHg and prolonged Valsalva-like activities.
• Exercise that increases blood pressure may worsen retinopathy.
• Exercise that results in a large increase in systolic pressure (such as weightlifting) can cause retinal hemorrhage.
• Exercise for these patients could include stationary cycling, walking and swimming. If possible, blood pressure should be monitored during the exercise program.
• Exercise is contraindicated if the individual has had recent photocoagulation treatment or surgery.
• These include lifting heavy weights and high-intensity aerobic activities. Activities that are weight-bearing yet low impact are preferable.
• It is important to wear well-cushioned shoes. Renal patients should be fully evaluated before commencing an exercise program. Fluid replacement is extremely important in these patients. Specific training programs for patients undergoing hemodialysis are advised.